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  • Fondée Date 10 février 1908
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Description De L'Entreprise

Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system market in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and technology as the nation’s primary productive force.

The preliminary stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and came across substantial challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind a lot of Western countries in terms of AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has actually steadily developed a nationwide agenda for expert system advancement and emerged as among the leading countries in synthetic intelligence research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of « nationwide AI groups » consisting of fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business should lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI development has substantially affected in lots of areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, accommodation and food services, and production are the leading industries that would be the most impacted by more AI implementation.

The personal sector, university labs, and the armed force are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are couple of present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first national law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to limit China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the development of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and advancement of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and innovation for China’s economic growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research and development did not begin till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was hard so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more providing government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s national innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more broadened its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study projects has considerably increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was also pointed out in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event corresponded with the Chinese government’s statement of the « Chinese Intelligence Year, » a significant turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued « A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan » (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a strategic technology that has ended up being a « focus of international competition ». [14]:2 The file prompted considerable investment in a variety of tactical areas connected to AI and called for close cooperation between the state and economic sectors. On the occasion of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the « transferability of social resources » between economic and military ends is an essential component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017, »expert system plus » was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The same year experienced the emergence of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study lab in Nanjing, and presented their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council specified the need for enormous talent acquisition, theoretical and useful advancements, along with public and personal investments. [14] Some of the stated motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI method include the potential of artificial intelligence for industrial improvement, much better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the introduction of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the regulations concerning deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services security requirements, including requirements for information collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to develop AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI safety dangers, consisting of abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors created with generative expert system to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it presented a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The fourth and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s new « AI Tigers ». [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

Since 2024, numerous Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be important to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its location as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council aims for AI to end up being « the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial transformation » by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the global leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a « fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system. » [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government « seeks to blend state planning and control while some functional flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, producing uneven advantages as they broaden offshore. » [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a top research study priority and ranks AI first among « frontier markets » that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding mainly concentrated on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government funding also supported several AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study revealed that, while China is massively buying all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to national assistance on developing China’s high-tech commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and local commercial advancement and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play an important function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate cooperation, public-private cooperations, and international collaborations and jobs with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in managing AI services and imposing commitments on AI companies, the overall approach to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates a huge amount of accessible information for business and scientists, which provides an essential benefit in the race of huge data. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest variety of internet users, creating substantial amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is among the most extensively employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its residents assists additional train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D but likewise offers tremendous economic possible drawing in both worldwide and domestic firms to join the AI market. The drastic advancement of the info and interaction innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in recent years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft measures specifying that tech companies will be obliged to make sure AI-generated content supports the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects intellectual residential or commercial property rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal duty for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not « incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system. » [51] Before releasing a large language design to the general public, companies need to look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the model refuses to respond to particular concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that keeps libraries containing training information sets typically used for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional companies with training information that CCP leaders consider permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to answer questions connecting to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most firms [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-lasting economic development. In the past, standard markets in China have dealt with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional expenses are anticipated to lower while a boost in efficiency creates revenue growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and absence of correctly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development since of rising needs for workers with advanced abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial development might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is concentrated in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to construct a « first-rate » armed force by « intelligentization » with a specific concentrate on using unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is looking into numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report launched later on revealed a computer system simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and ruining a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and worries of a widening « generational gap » in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to utilize AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, creating a common operating photo, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which looks for to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, choice assistance, software, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few limits exist in between Chinese industrial business, university research laboratories, the military, and the main government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct means of guiding AI development priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI technology from business business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information identifying to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially approving it lawful access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese endeavor capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, « particularly those from competitor or adversarial nations, » from investing in U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, including « microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative clean energy. » [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, especially because China deals with challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the very same percentage of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research study products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China particularly wish to deal with military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently developed the very first children’s academic program in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific focus on user defense, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people shall stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts calling for necessary requirements in long-term research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most typical topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and many nationwide governments have established legislation dealing with information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to deal with brand-new difficulties raised by AI development. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory framework categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech business in China are needed to classify their data into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and handle information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts related to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the evidence presented and uses pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach impartial choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that « increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [smart court reform] » [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to encourage private tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as « AI champs ». [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for enterprise use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s new « AI Tigers » in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to international AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards securing a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s « rightful » location and to pursue the nationwide restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article published by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that « Chinese government officials demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and global security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions, » and advised that « the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI advancements in China » and « funding, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive massive required change. » [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: « China may have unparalleled resources and huge untapped potential, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s development, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research and education.  » [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI creates challenges for holistic national security, including the dangers that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing effects on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will result in greater oppression of employees and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital accumulation and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the primary responsible star in the location of generative AI (producing brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI threats escalating military competitors in between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential risk from expert system have happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI surpass the risks, the greatest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% agreed or strongly agreed that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% thought it ought to be managed by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, deployment of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang region to identify Uyghurs is « the first known example of a government intentionally using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling, » [95] which is stated to be « one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism. » [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of discontent are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, particularly by regional community cops departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system business
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.